Why Error Correction Is Necessary Essay

Why Error Correction Is Necessary Essay Correction is necessary. The argument that students just need to use the language and the rest will come by itself seems rather weak. Students come to us to teach them. If they want only conversation, they will probably inform us or, they might just go to a chat room on the Internet. Obviously students need to be corrected as part of the learning experience. However, students also need to be encouraged to use the language. It is true that correcting students while they are trying their best to use the language can often discourage them. The most satisfactory solution of all is make correction an activity. Correction can be used as a follow-up to any given class activity. However, correction sessions can be used as a valid activity in and of themselves. In other words, teachers can set up an activity during which each mistake (or a specific type of mistake) will be corrected. Students know that the activity is going to focus on correction, and accept that fact. However, these activit ies should be kept in balance with other, more free-form, activities which give students the opportunity to express themselves without having to worry about being corrected every other word. It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific method in linguistics. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48), it was not until the 1970s that EA became a recognized part of applied linguistics, a development that owed much to the work of Corder. Before Corder, linguists observed learners errors, divided them into categories, tried to see which ones were common and which were not, but not much attention was drawn to their role in second language acquisition. It was Corder who showed to whom information about errors would be helpful (teachers, researchers, and students) and how. There are many major concepts introduced by S. P. Corder in his article The significance of learners errors, among which we encounter the following: 1) It is the learner who determines what the input is. The teacher can present a linguistic form, but this is not necessarily the input, but simply what is available to be learned. 2) Keeping the above point in mind, learners needs should be considered when teachers/linguists plan their syllabuses. Before Corders work, syllabuses were based on theories and not so much on learners needs. 3) Mager (1962) points out that the learners built-in syllabus is more efficient than the teachers syllabus. Corder adds that if such a built-in syllabus exists, then learners errors would confirm its existence and would be systematic. 4) Corder introduced the distinction between systematic and non-systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in ones native language; Corder calls these mistakes and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. He keeps the term errors for the systematic ones, which occur in a second language. 5) Errors are significant in three ways: to the teacher: they show a students progress to the researcher: they show how a language is acquired, what strategies the learner uses. to the learner: he can learn from these errors. 6) When a learner has made an error, the most efficient way to teach him the correct form is not by simply giving it to him, but by letting him discover it and test different hypotheses. (This is derived from Carrolls proposal (Carroll 1955, cited in Corder), who suggested that the learner should find the correct linguistic form by searching for it. 7) Many errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his native language. Corder claims that possession of ones native language is facilitative. Errors in this case are not inhibitory, but rather evidence of ones learning strategies. The above insights played a significant role in linguistic research, and in particular in the approach linguists took towards errors. Here are some of the areas that were influenced by Corders work: STUDIES OF LEARNER ERRORS Corder introduced the distinction between errors (in competence) and mistakes (in performance). This distinction directed the attention of researchers of SLA to competence errors and provided for a more concentrated framework. Thus, in the 1970s researchers started examining learners competence errors and tried to explain them. We find studies such as Richardss A non-contrastive approach to error analysis (1971), where he identifies sources of competence errors; L1 transfer results in interference errors; incorrect (incomplete or over-generalized) application of language rules results in intralingual errors; construction of faulty hypotheses in L2 results in developmental errors. Not all researchers have agreed with the above distinction, such as Dulay and Burt (1974) who proposed the following three categories of errors: developmental, interference and unique. Stenson (1974) proposed another category, that of induced errors, which result from incorrect instruction of the language. As most research methods, error analysis has weaknesses (such as in methodology), but these do not diminish its importance in SLA research; this is why linguists such as Taylor (1986) reminded researchers of its importance and suggested ways to overcome these weaknesses. As mentioned previously, Corder noted to whom (or in which areas) the study of errors would be significant: to teachers, to researchers and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error categorization and analysis, various studies concentrated on these three different areas. In other words, research was conducted not only in order to understand errors per se, but also in order to use what is learned from error analysis and apply it to improve language competence. Such studies include Kroll and Schafers Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition, where the authors demonstrate how error analysis can be used to improve writing skills. They analyze possible sources of error in non-native-English writers, and attempt to provide a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help achieve better writing skills. These studies, among many others, show that thanks to Corders work, researchers recognized the importance of errors in SLA and started to examine them in order to achieve a better understanding of SLA processes, i.e. of how learners acquire an L2. STUDIES OF L1 INFLUENCE ON SLA Various researchers have concentrated on those errors which demonstrate the influence of ones native language to second language acquisition. Before Corders work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory; it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about ones learning strategies (point 7, listed above). Claude Hagà ¨ge (1999) is a supporter of this concept and he mentions it in his book The child between two languages, dedicated to childrens language education. According to Hagà ¨ge, interference between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless the child does not have sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily eliminated. Hagà ¨ge stresses that there is no reason for worry if interference persists more than expected. The teacher should know that a child that is in the process of acquiring a second language will subconsciously invent structures influenced by knowledge he already possesses. These hypotheses he forms may constitute errors. These errors, though, are completely natural; we should not expect the child to acquire L2 structures immediately (p. 81). In addition to studies of L1 transfer in general, there have been numerous studies for specific language pairs. Thanh Ha Nguyen (1995) conducted a case study to demonstrate first language transfer in Vietnamese learners of English. He examined a particular language form, namely oral competence in English past tense making. He tried to determine the role of L1 transfer in the acquisition of this English linguistic feature as a function of age, time of exposure to English, and place and purpose of learning English. The influence of L1 on L2 was also examined by Lakkis and Malak (2000) who concentrated on the transfer of Arabic prepositional knowledge to English (by Arab students). Both positive and negative transfer were examined in order to help teachers identify problematic areas for Arab students and help them understand where transfer should be encouraged or avoided. In particular, they concluded that an instructor of English, whose native language is Arabic, can use the students L1 for structures that use equivalent prepositions in both languages. On the other hand, whenever there are verbs or expressions in the L1 and L2 that have different structures, that take prepositions, or that have no equivalent in one of the languages, instructors should point out these differences to their students. Not only was L1 influence examined according to language pair, but according to the type of speech produced (written vs. oral). Hagà ¨ge (p. 33) discusses the influence of L1 on accent; he notes that the ear acts like a filter, and after a critical age (which Hagà ¨ge claims is 11 years), it only accepts sounds that belong to ones native language. Hagà ¨ge discusses L1 transfer in order to convince readers that there is indeed a critical age for language acquisition, and in particular the acquisition of a native-like accent. He uses the example of the French language, which includes complex vowel sounds, to demonstrate that after a critical age, the acquisition of these sounds is not possible; thus, learners of a foreign language will only use the sounds existing in their native language when producing L2 sounds, which may often obstruct communication. STUDIES OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK Corder elaborated on Carrolls work to show that the most efficient way to teach a student the correct linguistic form is to let him test various hypotheses and eventually find the right form (point 6, listed above). In these steps, Hagà ¨ge points out the importance of self correction (p. 82-83). According to Hagà ¨ge, it is useful to always perform an error analysis based on written tests administered by the teacher, but without informing the student of the purpose of the test. On that basis, self-correction is preferable to correction by the teacher, especially if the latter is done in a severe or intimidating way. Self correction is even more efficient when it is done with the help of childrens classmates. According to teachers, the younger the children, the greater the cooperation among them and the less aggressive or intimidating the corrections. Hagà ¨ge dedicates a section in his book to the importance of treating errors in a positive way. In this section, titled The teache r as a good listener, he notes that it is useless, if not harmful, to treat errors as if they were diseases or pathological situations which must be eliminated, especially if this treatment becomes discouraging, as occurs when teachers lose their patience because of childrens numerous errors. This, of course, does not mean that corrections should be avoided; after all it is the teachers duty to teach the rules of the L2. But the correction of every error as soon as it occurs is not recommended. The justification that Hagà ¨ge offers is the following: the linguistic message that the child tries to produce is a sequence of elements which are interdependent; immediate corrections which interrupt this message tend to produce negative consequences, even to the less sensitive children; such consequences include anxiety, fear of making an error, the development of avoidance strategies, reduced motivation for participation in the classroom, lack of interest for learning, reduced will for s elf correction, and lack of trust towards the teacher. Esser (1984, cited in Hagà ¨ge) also made a similar point: repetitive and immediate corrections, he noted, may cause sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their classmates or teacher. Thus, Hagà ¨ge concludes, correction must not be applied by the teacher unless errors obstruct communication. This is the main criterion for error correction (i.e. obstruction of communication) presented by Hagà ¨ge; however there have been studies which examined such criteria in greater detail, such as Freiermuths L2 Error Correction: Criteria and Techniques (1997). Freiermuth accepts Corders view (point 6) and proposes criteria for error correction in the classroom. These criteria are: exposure, seriousness, and students needs. In the case of exposure, Freiermuth claims that when a child creates language (for example, when he tries to express an idea by using a linguistic form he has not yet acquired), he will most likely make errors; correcting these errors will be ineffective because the learner is not aware of them. Thus, error correction would result in the acquisition of the correct form only if the learner has been previously exposed to that particular language form. As regards the seriousness criterion, Freiermuth claims that the teacher must determine the gravity of an error before deciding whether he should correct it or not. Here Freiermuth sets a criterion which agrees with that of Hagà ¨ges: the error, he states, must impede communication before it should be considered an error that necessitates correction. But what constitutes a serious error? Which errors are those which should not be corrected? As an examples of non-serious errors, Freiermuth mentions those errors which occur due to learners nervousness in the classroom, due to their stress or the pressure of having to produce accurately a linguistic form in the L2. These errors can occur even with familiar structures; in that case, they are not of serious nature and are similar to what Corder called mistakes. Here again we see Corders influence in error analysis, and in particular in the distinction between errors and mistakes. Freiermuth goes on to suggest a hierarchy of errors (accor ding to seriousness) to help teachers decide which errors should be corrected: Errors that significantly impair communication [are] at the top of the list, followed by errors that occur frequently, errors that reflect misunderstanding or incomplete acquisition of the current classroom focus, and errors that have a highly stigmatizing effect on the listeners. He also clarifies what can cause stigmatization: profound pronunciation errors, or errors of familiar forms. Another important criterion that must be considered by the teacher is individual students needs. The importance of this factor is mentioned in Corder, who in turn notes that this idea had been suggested previously by Carroll (1955, cited in Corder 1967) and Ferguson (1966, cited in Corder 1967). Each student is different and thus may react differently to error correction. We infer from Freiermuths claim that the teacher must perform two main tasks: first, assess some specific character traits of students, such as self-confidence and language acquisition capability. Freiermuth agrees with Walz (1982, cited in Freiermuth) that self-confident, capable students can profit from even minor corrections, while struggling students should receive correction only on major errors. This claim agrees with Esser and Hagà ¨ges claim that repetitive corrections are likely to decrease motivation; it is reasonable to accept that students who lack self-confidence will be stigmatized to a greater degree than confident students. The teachers second task, according to Freiermuth, is to listen to learners L2 utterances in order to determine where errors occur (i.e. which linguistic forms cause students difficulties), their frequency, and their gravity (according to the severity criteria mentioned above). Then the teacher can combine the outcome of these tasks and decide on correction techniques for individual students. A different approach to error correction was suggested by Porte (1993), who stressed the importance of self-correction. Porte refers to Corders distinction of errors and mistakes and points out that many students do not know the difference. It is important, Porte notes, that students know how to identify an error in order to avoid it in the future. She agrees with Corder that it is more efficient for learners to correct themselves than be corrected by the teacher, and goes on to suggest a four-step approach for self-correction. This approach consists of questions that the teacher provides to students. After writing an essay, students should read it four times, each time trying to answer the questions included in each of the four steps. Thus, in each re-reading task (each step) they concentrate on a different aspect of their essay. In brief, the first task asks them to highlight the verbs and check the tenses; in the second task students concentrate on prepositions; the third task req uires them to concentrate on nouns (spelling, agreement between subject and verb); finally in the fourth task students should try to correct potential personal mistakes. Porte also offers some clarification of what is meant by personal mistakes, in order to help the students identify them. The studies mentioned above are only a few examples that demonstrate how S. Pit Corders work influenced the area of error analysis in linguistics. The concepts that Corder introduced directed researchers attention to specific areas of error analysis; they helped linguists realize that although errors sometimes obstruct communication, they can often facilitate second language acquisition; also they played a significant role in training teachers and helping them identify and classify students errors, as well as helping them construct correction techniques.

How the business deals with legal factors Essay

A legal factor that has a big impact on Tesco’s is protecting employees which, includes the laws about how many hours an employee can work. This amount of hours depends on the employees contract, if they are a full time member of staff then they have to work between 35-45 hours a week but no more, these hours also have to be over reasonably shift, for example having a 8 hour shift a day over 5 days a week. If they are a part time member then they can work any amount of hours a week as long as it is no longer the 35 hours. This can impact on Tesco’s as they have to keep to the terms and conditions of their contracts with staff , which could affect activates Tesco’s wish to do as they may not fit in the with hours the members of staff involved can work. Tesco’s can deal with this by offering willing to work staff overtime shifts, if staff are willing to do this, it means that Tesco’s doesn’t need to employ any more member which works out better for them as if they were to do this, they would then have to find the correct amount of hours agreed in the contact which might not be available. Even though some staff maybe willing to work more hours, they may feel that because they are helping out the business that they don’t need to be as professional and honest as they are when working their own scheduled shifts, this article (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/tesco-accused-of-using-electronic-armbands-to-monitor-its-staff-8493952.html)is about how Tesco’s is trying to deal with this issue. Tesco’s has come up with this idea of its warehouse and forklift staff wearing electronic bracelets which helps improve the efficiency of it workers as it means they don’t have to carry around items such as pen and paper as the armband collects this data which also means they are collection correct data. This armband also allows Tesco’s to monitor their staff to check that they are doing their jobs when expected of them and that they are not taking any un-agreed breaks, the arm band also informs the staff of when they are allowed there b reaks. This helps Tesco’s make sure their staff are not working over the hours allowed or working under the hours agreed. A legal factor that impacts Tata motors  is the protection of customers and employees, like all businesses Tata has to keep to legal factors and laws, the need to treat all of their customers fairly and honestly, this helps customers feel they can trust the business as well as giving the a good reputation. Challenges that Tata face when selling their products are making sure they pass the sales of good act which means they need to describe the product exactly how it is and not say it does something it actually doesn’t. It also needs to pass the customer credit act. http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/tata-motors-focus-on-customer-satisfaction-to-woo-back-buyers-114111600186_1.html this article explains how they are going out of their way to make sure the give there customers the best service they possibly can. The article states that Tata motor has previously had problems with their customer service. They have taken this feedback and actually work on making it better by improving the quality of manufacture and repairs. How the business deal with social factors A common social factor that affects business is equal rights for both man and female workers and peoples religion. This could impact Tesco’s as if anyone feels as though they are being judged or unable to do something because of these reasons then they could cause problems for Tesco’s by making complaints either to their managers or their union. To make sure this doesn’t happen Tesco’s has to make sure that their staff know that everyone treated the same and if there are people applying for a job they cannot turn them away because of these reason, the only way they can do this is if someone is disabled in some way and their disability would stop them from doing the job required, however if this is the care they have to inform this person that is the reason but in a kind way as not to offend them. Tesco’s deal with these possible problem by getting new applicants to have a cv which is what they are judged upon or the job, they then have interview/trial which is so that they are then judged upon their abilities to do the job not on the gender or religious view. Tesco’s has coped well with this issues as if you are to go into their stores you are clearly able to see a balanced level of both male and female staff, Tesco’s also considers the religious view and has there store open later and close early on a Sunday as most religions see this a day of rest.

General Sociology – Code of the Streets

In the article â€Å"The Code of the Street† by Elijah Anderson, he allows a glimpse of everyday life through the eyes of two completely different worlds wrapped up within one universe. He compares street families to what he refers to as â€Å"decent families†. Although the meaning can take on different perceptions to the eye of the beholder, the author described it as a code of civility at one end of conduct regulated by the threat of violence.Within these most economically drugged, crime-related, and depressing neighborhoods, the rules of civil action have been severely weakened, and their stead of survival known as this â€Å"code of the street† often holds many their key to survival. The book Essentials of sociology gives four different theories on why crime exists, they are the functionalist theory, the internationalist theory, conflict theory, and control theory. The theory I believe best relates to Andersons article is the internationalist theory.The autho r presented only two groups of people which categorized their existence within the social contest among individuals and families of the neighborhood, the â€Å"decent† and the â€Å"street. † I thought that they were kind of broad terms and that maybe they shouldn’t necessarily be â€Å"categorized† but they should be more of a description of people. Because there can be many â€Å"decent† people and they can still know the street. The internationalist theory basically implies that crime is learned from the things you observe in life and your interactions with people around you.The first place Anderson says people in impoverished areas learn crime is at a young age from the family. Children are always influence by their parents and Anderson says â€Å"those street oriented adults with whom children come in contact with including mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters, boyfriends, cousins, neighbors, and friends-help them in forming this understanding by verbalizing the messages they are getting through experience: â€Å"watch your back. † â€Å"Protect yourself. † â€Å"Don’t punk out. † â€Å"If someone messes with you got to pay them back. †Ã¢â‚¬Å"If someone dishes you got to straighten them out.† many parents actually impose sanctions if a child is not sufficiently aggressive. † This shows that children can even be punished for not being aggressive enough, so they will have a tendency to be more violent and commit more crime Street families are overwhelmed with the demands of parenting which means kids to have to be able to take care of themselves more which leads to a dependence on the code of the streets and Anderson says† families, who are more fully invested in the code of the streets than the decent people are, may aggressively socialize their children into it.†This means children are taught to be aggressive from a young age so they can better take care of thems elves and survive in their environment. Another example Anderson gives of children growing up around violence in poorer areas is many parents have financial problems caused by drug use which causes more violence and exposes the child to more crime. Another place Anderson says children are exposed to crime is in the streets. He says, â€Å"Realities of inner city life are largely absorbed on the streets.†One reason Anderson says children gravitate towards being in the streets is a lack of supervision at home or a home environment not fit for children. He notes that the children who hang out in the street are allowed to â€Å"rip and run up and down the street† which shows that from a young age these children are being taught they can do anything they want, and in poorer areas it only takes a matter of time before they start getting involved in crime.Also many kids may not be looking to commit any crimes but because they hang-out in the street they are perceived as crimi nals, and the eventually except the label and actually start committing crime. This concept is known as the labeling theory. It shows that it is not the act of being in the street that causes crime it is the way people react to people being in the streets that cause them to commit crimes. Another aspect of life children in poorer areas observe and emulate is respect and reputation.When you don’t have many physical possession ones reputation is seen as all that one has. Anderson talks about how from a young age that a child â€Å" to maintain his honor he must show he is not someone to be â€Å"messed with† or â€Å"diced† the article also talks about how in urban societies â€Å"it is a basic requirement to show a certain disposition to violence† meaning in order to keep up with you reputation you must show that you can be violent and commit crime, and if this is the way the majority of people living in these areas think there is no wonder there is so mu ch crime.The last reason Anderson gives that I believe gives children the impression they must commit crimes if they live in poor areas is the areas they live in themselves. They are poorer areas so living is already a struggle, and kids see that crime is an easy way to get a lot for a little; they can rob someone in two seconds and have money to eat with. An example Anderson gives of this state of mind is â€Å"a boy wearing a fashionable, expensive jacket, for example is vulnerable to attack by another who covets the jacket, and either can’t afford to buy one or wants the added satisfaction of depriving someone else.†Anderson also mentions how sometimes in these neighborhoods police won’t even show p and when kids see that there neighborhood is too dangerous for police it is easier to say I will become a part of it instead of becoming a victim. In conclusion I believe that the internationalist theory best describes Andersons article â€Å"The Code of the Stre ets† and like it says in the book deviance is learned through interaction with others. Crime in particular is learned through experiences growing up at home, hanging out in the streets, trying to gain reputation, and experiences and interaction with where you live and the community you live in.

Portfolio Performance And Hedging Options - 2281 Words

Portfolio Performance and Hedging options Cheuk Yin Lam 6865175 Introduction This is an equity fund manager tasked with the responsibility of managing a portfolio. The portfolio comprises of largest UK stocks and thus bases the FTSE100 index (Battalio and Schultz 2011, Pp 45). There is much concern that sharp correction in equities might take place in the next 3 month. The main purpose of this report is to present the hedging choices that they have. Portfolio Setup a. 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